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The motif
of the shepherd is found throughout the scripture. In the Old Testament
God has words of strong rebuke and warning for bad shepherds, and
prophecies of a good shepherd that is to come. In the New Testament,
Jesus identifies himself as the Good Shepherd and we find in the
epistles the notion of good shepherding extended to those who would
lead in the church.
This paper will attempt to explore
the shepherding motif in some detail. In specific it will answer
the following three questions: Why might have God chosen to use
this particular image? What are the characteristics of a good
shepherd? Who is the Shepherd that is to come referred to in the
Old Testament?
Why
the image of the shepherd?
The idea of shepherding, and in specific
the idea of God acting as the Shepherd of His people, is a motif
found throughout the Bible, from beginning to end. In Gen.48:24,
as Jacob, on his deathbed summarized his life, he declared that
God had been his “shepherd all of his life to this day.”
In Rev.7:17, when the saints who come out of the tribulation are
brought before God, John brings together two of the most striking
images of the scripture by stating, "for the Lamb in the
center of the throne shall be their shepherd and shall guide them
to springs of the water of life; and God shall wipe every tear
from their eye.”
While perhaps not found with as much
frequency as other motifs in the Bible, the theme of the shepherd
is very significant. It appears at critical times in the narrative
of the history of God’s people, and hardly another motif
is as rich in content.
Why did God choose to include this
motif as part of His revelation to man? Scripture itself does
not give a direct explanation, so the answer cannot be definitive.
However, there would appear to be several good reasons. Shepherding
was, and still is to a certain extent, a very common occupation
for those in the Middle East. The Patriarchs were all shepherds,
as was Moses and of course David. (It was to shepherds in the
field that the news of the birth of Christ was first revealed!)
The terrain and geography of the area lend itself to the raising
of both sheep and goats, but in particular sheep. There is scarcity
of grass and less than abundant sources of water. Sheep are moved
from one area to another with relative ease and require less water
than other domestic animals. Everyone was familiar with shepherding
--- to say the people to whom the scriptures were first written
had a working knowledge of the concept would indeed be an understatement.
However, it may be most noteworthy
to realize that leaders and rulers being called shepherds was
not exclusive to the Bible or for that matter to the nation of
Israel. King Hammurabi of Babylon called himself a shepherd1,
and Homer regularly styles the Greek chiefs as shepherds of their
people.2
In fact, history has shown, “from ancient antiquity rulers
were described as demonstrating their legitimacy to rule by their
ability to ‘pature’ their people.”3
This makes sense then of verses like those found in Jer. 49:19
and 50:44, where God asks, “who is the shepherd who can
stand against me?” In this connection, the royal staff,
or scepter, a common accessory for kings in the Ancient Near East,
was itself a form of shepherd’s rod. Shepherds commonly used
long poles such as these to poke around crevices in caves to scare
out scorpions and snakes.4
It came to be a symbol of protection, power and authority. Even
in Egypt, a divine symbol of kingship was the shepherd’s
crook.5
It is true that the idea of shepherd as leader was not exclusive
to the Bible. However, what we will find is that God as the ultimate
shepherd of His people takes this concept to a level not present
in other cultures.
As we look at the characteristics
of a good shepherd it will become clear that God chose this motif
at least in part because His people are so apt to act like sheep.
Scriptures like Is.53:6 remind us over and over again that God’s
people and sheep are very much alike and the connection is most
often negative. “Sheep are not only dependent creatures;
singularly unintelligent, prone to wandering and unable to find
their way to a shepherd even when it is in sight.”6
The analogy is fitting. It is clear, because of our helplessness
and our tendency to wander and get lost we are in need of a Good
Shepherd.
The
characteristics of a good shepherd
The Bible sketches out in great detail
what a good shepherd would look like both in the Psalms and in
the words of Christ himself. However, before turning to these
descriptions it will be beneficial to consider in the broadest
terms what the focus of a leader of God’s people should be,
and in specific how the poor leaders of Israel failed in this
regard.
The focus of a good shepherd was
to be on his flock---their provision, guidance and safety. The
epitome of the bad shepherds, in Ezekiel’s expose of Israel’s
leaders of his day (34:1-6), sketches out in vivid terms, what
it looked like when leaders failed to provide this care. These
leaders were slaughtering their sheep for their own gain rather
than feeding them. ( This calls to mind the hireling of John 10:10,
who comes only to steal, kill and destroy and also of Jesus’scathing
rebuke of the Pharisees in Matthew 23.) Rather than caring for
the flock, they treated them with “force and severity”.
(vs.4) Perhaps Ezekiel’s greatest rebuke was for their lack
of guidance. This is emphasized here (and in other passages).
Three times he mentions that the sheep are scattered. They were
lost, became prey for every beast and had no one to search or
seek them. (vs.6) Jeremiah, in his judgment of the leaders of
Israel took this notion on step further, connecting a lack of
spirituality on the leaders part with the scattering of the sheep.
In Jer.10:21 he states, no doubt in reference to the captivity
of Judah, “For the shepherds have become stupid, and have
not sought the Lord; Therefore they have not prospered, and all
their flock is scattered.”
Knowing that the bad shepherd fails
to provide for the sheep, protect the sheep and guide the sheep,
the picture of the good shepherd laid out in scripture comes into
clearer view. The most famous description of the good shepherd,
and perhaps one of the most well known passages in the Bible,
is Psalm 23. These lines were penned by David, not a theoretician
when it came to sheep and their welfare, but a proven shepherd.
(David’s ability as a shepherd was clearly connected with
God using him to masterfully lead Israel. In Ps. 78:70-72 we read,
“ He also chose Davis His servant, And took him from
the sheepfolds; From the care of the ewes with sucking lams He
brought him, To shepherd Jacob His people, and Israel His inheritance.
So he shepherded them according to the integrity of
his heart, And guided them with his skillful hands.”)
Entire books have been written detailing the work and nature of
the shepherd in Ps.23. What follows attempts to highlight some
of the more important points of the shepherd’s provision
for his flock.
The good shepherd provides nourishment
and refreshment for his sheep. In verse 2 we are told he causes
the sheep to lie down in green pastures. This indicates a place
to rest but also a supply of food on hand. Also present is water
that is welcoming in addition to refreshing. This met a critical
need due to the shortage of water in the region as already pointed
out.
Later in the Psalm David conveys
the idea of abundant provision in yet another way. He speaks of
a table being set, his cup overflowing, and his head being anointed
with oil. Bedouin hospitality often called for just such a lavish
response to a guest, and the anointing with oil was a symbol of
lavish generosity and goodness on behalf of a hostess for their
guest. (Ecc.9:8) David points out that the skilled shepherd MAKES
them lie down (vs.2), LEADS them (vs.2) and GUIDES them (vs.3).
He provides guidance which is so critical for sheep that are by
their nature apt to stray or wander into danger because they are
so helpless. This was a critical aspect of leadership and the
very reason given for Joshua being appointed to carry on for Moses
in Num.27:15 –17. It is interesting to note that David is
aware that the shepherd provides in this way not because of the
inherent worthiness of the sheep, but because of the reputation
of the shepherd. Also, the picture here is of the shepherd leading
the way. Sheep in the East are not driven like in the West due
to differences in the terrain. For the most part, in the East
the shepherd goes ahead of the sheep, choosing the way to go.
Not only did the shepherd provide
nourishment and direction, but David goes out of his way in the
Psalm to convey the idea of the shepherd providing safety and
protection. Sheep are extremely skittish and fearful, but the
shepherd was equipped to protect the sheep. The rod, which was
more of a club, was use to ward off wild animals and robbers.
The staff, as we have seen already was used to protect form scorpions
and snakes. As a result the sheep were safe, even walking through
the valley of the Shadow of Death---literally the valley of deepest
darkness. ( The shepherd himself is able to enjoy a banquet in
the presence of his enemies too, vs.5.) Isaiah understood this
about the good shepherd as well. In Is.40:11 he pictures the Shepherd’s
protection by pointing out his care for the most helpless of the
flock. The newborn and the nursing mothers with young are the
members most vulnerable to attack. “Like a shepherd He
will tend His flock, In His arm He will gather the lambs, and
carry them in His bosom; He will gently lead the nursing
ewes.”
In Jesus’ description of Himself
in John 10 he adds to our understanding of what makes for a good
shepherd. The good shepherd is sacrificial. He is willing to ignore
his own needs in order to meet the needs of the sheep. Over and
over in the passage he states the good shepherd gives his own
life for his sheep. (Vs.11, 15, 17, 18) In addition to this, though,
Jesus’ audience understood the sacrificial nature of the
shepherd in His discussion of the sheepfold. When sheep were penned
in at night outside the city, the shepherd himself would often
construct a makeshift fold. He would take brush and bushes and
construct them in a “u” shape or some other formation
depending on what was already at hand. He would then place thorny
branches on top of the brush to both inhibit the sheep from jumping
out and from wild animals and thieves jumping into the enclosure
to hurt or kill the sheep. ( Robbers would accomplish their goal
by climbing over the enclosure, slitting the throat of the sheep
and heaving the body/ bodies over the wall. This helps explain
John 10:1.) The only way in and out of the fold was through a
space he would leave open. The shepherd himself would actually
lie across the opening, becoming the door in and out of the sheepfold.
The shepherd’s own comfort and sleep were secondary to the
comfort and safety of the sheep. Additionally, we know too from
the story told in Luke 15 that a worthy shepherd indeed does go
and search for a lost sheep. He is willing to make this effort
unlike the worthless shepherds already mentioned who allow the
sheep to wander and be preyed upon. Jesus finalizes the notion
of the sheeps’ security by stating in John10:28,29 that with
Him they are eternally secure.
The other characteristic of the good
shepherd Jesus makes crystal clear in his discussion of the topic
in John 10, is that the good shepherd is personally, if not intimately
involved with all his sheep. His closeness with the individual
sheep is clear in vs. 3 when it says he calls them by name. From
Nathan’s story in IISam.12, we know that sheep were sometimes
given the status of pet. In fact, so close were the shepherd with
their flock that one shepherd is reported to been able to tell
which lamb went with which nursing mother in the dark by merely
feeling it’s head!7
The shepherd is also involved enough with his flock that they
know his voice. In this day multiple flocks would sometimes be
brought into the sheepfold for the night. The next day each shepherd
in turn would stand in the middle of the fold and call his own
out. It was not a matter of the exact call or words used, but
the sheep responded primarily to the distinct tone of the shepherd’s
voice.
In summary, the good shepherd showed
great concern for his sheep. He provided for them in terms of
nourishment and rest. He guided them, leading the way. He was
intimately involved with the flock and concerned for the safety
of each individual. He was willing to sacrifice his own comfort,
even his own life, for the sake of his sheep.
This is the kind of love and care
with which God wanted His rulers to lead Israel in the Old Testament,
and the writers of the New Testament have much of this in mind
when it comes to leadership in the church. It was in this context
that Jesus challenged Peter to prove his love after his betrayal.
After each admission of love on Peter’s part Jesus said,
“Tend My lambs” John21:15, “Shepherd
my sheep” vs.16, and “Tend my sheep”
vs.17. Paul charges the elders at the churches in present day
Asia Minor to “shepherd the flock of God among you, not
under compulsion, but voluntarily, according to the will of God;
and not for sordid gain, but with eagerness; nor yet as lording
it over those allotted to your charge, but proving to be
examples to the flock.” (1Peter5:2-3)
Understanding the level of love,
commitment and sacrifice expended by the shepherd on behalf of
the sheep raises the bar for those who seek to lead in the church.
As mentioned earlier, the record
of this kind of leadership in the Old Testament was abysmal, with
the exception of David and a few others. Israel’s leaders
failed to be shepherds of this description. As a result prophets
in the Old Testament looked forward to a time when a truly good
shepherd would come. In the next section we will explore who that
person would be and when He would come.
The
identity of the shepherd in Old Testament prophesy and when he
would come
There are numbers of passages in
the OT that make reference to a shepherd who is to come and who
is to play a significant role in the history of Israel. In the
case of Is.44:28 the shepherd is actually named---Cyrus. In the
remaining passages, the identity of the shepherd is unknown. In
this section of the paper we will explore the major passages in
the scripture that deal with the shepherd where his identity is
unknown. Most passages that refer to the coming shepherd are clear
as to this person being the Messiah. What is not as clear is when
He will come and what He will do at that time. Where appropriate,
we will investigate what meaning these passages had for their
original audience and what they might mean for us today. We will
also look at Ezek.34: 23, where there is some controversy concerning
the shepherd’s identity. Here we will argue that the person
of the shepherd is the Messiah.
Most passages referring to the coming
shepherd are connected with the ultimate restoration of Israel
which will take place at Christ’s Second Coming. One of the
most striking of these predictions is Is.40:11. In the midst of
the warning about the coming hardship of captivity, Isaiah lifts
the eyes of his countrymen to a time when God will fully restore
all things. The global scope of the language, “Let every
valley be lifted up…that the glory of the Lord will be
revealed” argues for a time frame of the Second Coming.
According to vs.10, at this time He is coming in judgment and
might; “Behold, the Lord God will come with might, With
His arm ruling for Him. Behold His reward is with Him, And His
recompense before Him.” However, Isaiah goes out of his
way in the next verse to picture God in the most tender and nurturing
terms. “Like a shepherd he will tend His flock, In His
arm He will gather the lambs, And carry them in His bosom;
He will gently lead the nursing ewes.” Provision and
care are inherent in this image of the ruling shepherd who is
to come. This would not be missed by Isaiah’s audience. In
ch.49:8-10 Isaiah expands on this same theme, although not actually
using the term shepherd. “Thus says the Lord, ‘In
a favorable time I have answered You, And in a day of salvation
I have helped You; And I will keep You and give You for a covenant
of the people, To restore the land, to make them inherit the desolate
heritages; Saying to those who are bound, Go Forth, To those who
are in darkness, Show Yoursleves, Along the roads they will feed,
And their pasture will be on all bare heights. They will not hunger
or thirst, Neither will the sorching heat or sun strike them down;
For He who has compassion on them will lead them, And will guide
them to springs of water.” Isaiah’s sees a time
when the Lord of Hosts will appear as judge, which is a time to
be feared especially for the enemies of His people. Yet because
the nurturing care of His flock, a time to be anticipated with
excitement as well. No doubt these words were words of comfort
to Isaiah’s audience as they headed into a dark time. These
words should be a comfort for us as well as we too wait for the
Judge and Shepherd to return.
In Jer. 31:10-17 we find an emphasis
not on a future Messiah coming as shepherd, but on God’s
omniscience over the events in Israel’s history. Jeremiah
declares, “Hear the word of the Lord, O nations. And declare
in the coastlands afar off , And say, ‘He who scattered
Israel will gather him, And keep him as a shepherd keeps his flock.’”
Vs.10 God oversaw and allowed the scattering of His people for
their disobedience, and in His omniscience He will bring them
back. Again, scripture connects the scattering of God’s flock
as a hurtful and damaging thing. His promise to bring them back
together, restoring them to the land, which He did in part in
after the Babylonian captivity, conveyed great comfort to His
people then in exile. They did not get where they were by accident,
and the same God who scattered His people would see that they
came back together. This truth, that God oversees and directs
history (in a broad sense) should be a comfort to us as well.
This is a passage that is typical of many prophecies in the Old
Testament. It was fulfilled in part with the return of Judah to
the land after the Babylonian captivity. It was further fulfilled
when modern day Israel was restored to the land in 1948, and it
will be completely fulfilled (to the top of the cup) when Christ
comes back to establish His kingdom once and for all.
In Micah5:2-5a we find another reference
to the future shepherd of Israel. Here we see elements of the
prophesy fulfilled at the first coming of Christ, but other aspects
that will be completed at His second coming. Bethlehem is mentioned
as the place where a ruler of Israel will go forth. Matthew in
Ch.2:5-6 saw this fulfilled in Christ’s first coming. In
vs.4 it states “And He will arise and shepherd His flock,
In the strength of the Lord, In the majesty of the name of the
Lord His God. And they will remain, Because at that
time He will be great.” The language here suggerst the
global knowledge of Christ which will take place at His Second
Coming. (Micah goes on to speak of the global peace Israel will
experience at that time as well.) Again, these words were words
of comfort to Micah’s audience, especially in view of the
failure of the nation’s leaders of that day to properly care
for their flock. The triumphal language that follows (vs.5-9)
provided great comfort for Micah’s hearers as well. The church
today, though not in the same situation can look forward to living
in a state where our shepherd will at last “be great to the
ends of the earth” and that “He will be our peace.”
When it comes to Zechariah’s
mention of the shepherd to come, the line between fulfillment
at Christ’s first and Second Coming becomes even more blurred.
Zechariah’s prophecies are largely concerned with events
at the end of history and the Second Coming of Christ. His imagery
is often apocalyptic in nature and difficult to interpret. However,
the gospel writers saw some of the events foreshadowed there as
having to do with Christ’s first coming. For example, in
the very complicated passage of Zech.11:11-12, the speaker (the
true shepherd?) asks for his wages. He receives 30 pieces of silver,
which God then tells him to throw to the potter (a gesture of
disdain and disregard.) Some see this prophecy fulfilled in Matt.26:14-16,
when Judas betrayed Christ. Matthew carefully points out the exact
price of his betrayal. Likewise in Zech.13:7-9 there is mention
of the sheep being scattered when the shepherd is struck down.
Matthew 26:31 saw the fulfillment of this in the disciples’
forsaking Christ the night He was arrested. Out of context this
interpretation may seem a very clear fit. However in context it
is not so clear. Just prior to the scattering of the sheep, it
refers to the awakening of a "sword against God’s
Shepherd, and against the man, My Associate". (!!) (Some
believe this last person referenced to be the Anti-Christ!) The
verse ends with a remnant declaring, “The Lord is my God”.
Is this the remnant gathered together at Christ’s Second
Coming? These passages seem particularly unclear in terms of the
time of the Shepherd’s coming or what He will do, and yet
the gospel writers view them as at least fulfilled in part in
Jesus’s lifetime.
Perhaps the most interesting of the
OT prophecies concerning the shepherd of the future is in Ezek.34.
After Ezekiel extensively rebukes the shepherds of Israel for
their abysmal failure to lead the people as God would have them,
(Vs.1-10), God interjects an unmistakable ray of hope. He says,
(vs.11) “I myself will search for my sheep and seek
them out.” He then goes on in beautiful imagery to
paint the picture of the Good Shepherd searching for and restoring
the lost and scattered sheep. He will return them to the land
and feed them on the mountains of Israel. (vs.13-14) He will bind
up the broken and strengthen the sick, but at the same time will
come with judgment. (Vs.16) In vs.17-19 we see He will execute
judgment not only on the leaders, but also on individual members
of the flock, some of whom have demonstrated the same self interest
as the leaders. (vs.12) There is total restoration of the nation
of Israel and they enter in to a time of abundance and blessing.
(vs.25-31) This would appear, quite clearly, to be a prediction
of the Second Coming of Christ and the final restoration of the
true Israel. However, in vs.23 and 24 we read ‘Then I
will set over them one shepherd, My servant David, and
he will feed them; he will feed them himself and be their shepherd.
And I, the Lord, will be their God, and My servant David will
be prince among them; I, the Lord, have spoken.”
The mention here of David, for some is particularly controversial.
Rather than the shepherd being Christ, they see David as God’s
shepherd, servant and prince. “However, nothing in Ezekiel
34:23 demands that Ezekiel was not referring to the literal King
David who will be resurrected to serve as Israel’s righteous
prince.”8
They argue that later in Ezek. Ch.37:34-35 there is mention again
of David. Here he is king and prince forever. David appears in
the future predictions of Jer.30:9 and Hos.3:5. In Ezek.45:22,
and 45:4 there is mention of sin offerings taking place in the
millennium. These scholars (Walvoord) argue that it would be inappropriate
for Jesus to offer such sacrifices, but appropriate for David
the prince. From these lines of reason the conclusion is drawn
that the shepherd mentioned here is not Christ but a literal resurrected
David.
Aside from the obvious problem of
dealing with Jesus Himself claiming to be the Good Shepherd, (and
the writers of the NT agreeing with Him as in 1Peter2:25, Heb.13:20
etc.) this conclusion ignores the marvelously deliberate and intricate
way the scripture identifies Jesus with David. The promise to
David from earliest times was that His descendent would be on
the throne of Israel forever, not David himself. There is an eternal
aspect to the kingship of David’s line that he humanly could
never fulfill. However, it was understood by all, including David
himself that God would establish one of his descendants to sit
on the throne eternally. Jesus was that descendent. Matthew’s
gospel from chapter 1 onward strives to make that point. Over
and over again he refers to Jesus as the Son of David. The Jews
knew the Messiah had to be a son of David. This causes them to
ask in Mt.12:23 “This man cannot be the Son of David,
can he?” The answer to that question, though they didn’t
believe it was “YES”. Jesus was the great and final
descendant of David. Paul in trying to persuade the Jews that
Christ was the Messiah makes this argument in Acts 13:23 and again
in 13:34-36. Peter too points out that Jesus was in fact the son
of David promised in the scripture. Acts 2:21-36 Jesus boldly
asserts that not only is He the offspring of David, the very one
that David anticipated, but He was God at the same time. Matt.22:43,
Mk.12:35, Lk20:42 all record Jesus forcing the Jews to think through
His identity by considering what David says in Ps.110. How like
God to so fantastically tie Jesus in with the line of David to
fulfill that promise to sit on the throne forever. How like God
it is that He Himself, not a resurrected David, is the Good Shepherd
and as the Good Shepherd the final king for His people. This was
always His desire. He allowed for a human king as a concession
to his rebellious children, (I Sam.8:7) but it was His desire
to rule and care for His children from the beginning.
Walvoord also argues that David,
not Christ will preside over sacrifice in the Millennial Kingdom.
The problem with this argument has more to do with the nature
of the Kingdom to come than who is officiating as priest. The
true question concerns the idea of sacrifice for sin in the Millennial
Kingdom. Why would God bring back a system that he declared insufficient
and obsolete over and over in the book of Hebrews? Why would it
be reinstated after hundreds of years? It seems to make no sense.
All other authors of the scripture speak metaphorically when referring
to the kingdom to come. It is very hard to understand why Ezekiel
alone would describe it in literal terms. It is not hard to understand,
though, that the exiled priests who made up part of Ezekiel’s
audience would view the return of the sacrificial system as part
of that which God would ultimately restore. This was no doubt
something they longed for in their years of captivity. Ezekiel,
again in speaking words of comfort to the people of his day could
have included notions of the sacrificial system in his depiction
of the kingdom to come.
In conclusion, it would seem that
this passage in Ezekiel, like the others, looks forward to the
coming of the Messiah, not David as the Good Shepherd of his people.
As was the case with the other references to His coming to regather
and care for his sheep, God intended to give hope and encouragement
to the people of Ezekiel’s day. Knowing that a day would
come when God would “feed His flock and lead them to rest”
(Ez.34:15) was meant to bring them comfort in a day when they
were cut off from their land, and seemingly cut off from their
God. In the midst of the darkness God wanted them not to dispair,
but to know He had great plans for them. (Jer.29:11)
The final prophecy of the shepherd
to be considered is Mt.25:32-34. “And all the nations
will be gathered before Him; and he will separate from one another,
as the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats; And He will
put the sheep on His right, and the goats on the left.”
In this passage the shepherd goes on to direct the sheep (the
righteous-vs.37, 46) to the kingdom prepared from the foundation
of the world, and the goats, to eternal punishment. The metaphor
here relates to the fact that often a shepherd tended a mixed
flock of both sheep and goats. (In a similar way we say judgment
between individual sheep, as well as between sheep and goats in
Ezekiel 34.) There were times when the two groups needed to be
separated. This was a common part of the shepherding job, clearly
understood by Jesus’ audience. These passages teach that
the Good Shepherd will come to judge between individuals at the
end of the age. For those who are His, these were meant to be
words of comfort. For those who were not, words of great sobriety.
In conclusion, the OT scripture does
look forward to the coming of the Good Shepherd. As God’s
Messiah, Jesus fulfilled this prophetic role in some measure in
His first coming. He will complete it in His second coming, however,
when He will come in judgment to separate the righteous from those
who did not know Him, and to finally care for and lead those that
are His own.
Davis, John J. The Perfect Shepherd;
Studies in the 23 Psalm. Baker Book House: Grand Rapids, Michigan;
1979.
Elison, H.C. Ezekiel: The Man
and His Message: Paternoster Press; London, 1956.
Habershon, Ada R. Study of the
Types: Kiegel Publications; Grand rapids, Michigan, 1974.
Harris, R. Laird. Theological
Wordbook of OT Vol. 2: Moody Press, Chicago, 1980.
Leupold, H.C. Exposition of Zechariah:
Wartburg Press; Columbus, Ohio, 1956.
Ryker, Leland. Dictionary of Biblical
Images: Intervarsity Press; Downers Grove, Ill. 1998.
Walvoord, John F. The Bible Knowledge
Commentary: Victor Books; Wheaton, Ill. 1985.
Wight, fred H. Manners and Customs
of Bible Lands: Moody Press; Chicago, 1953.
Wright, G. Ernest. The Old Testament
Against It's Environment: SCM Press; London, 1954.
Footnotes
1
Davis, John J. The Perfect Shepherd;Studies in the 23 Psalm:
Baker Book House; Grand Rapids Michigan, 1979. Pg.51
2
Wade, G.W. The Books of Micah, Obediah, Joel and Jonah:
Methuen 7 Co. LTD; London, 1925. Pg.42
3
Harris, R. Laird. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament
Vol.2: Moody Press; Chicago, 1980. Pg. 853
4
Davis, John J. The Perfect Shepherd; Studies in the 23 Psalm:
Baker House; Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1979. Pg.100
5
Ibid. Pg 51
6
Ryker, Leland. Dictionary of Biblical Imagery: Intervarsity
Press, Downers Grove, Ill., 1998. Pg. 782
7
Wight, Fred H. Manners and Customs of Bible Lands: Moody
Press; Chicago, 1953. Pg.159
8
Walvoord, John F. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Victor
Press; Wheaton, Ill., 1985. Pg.1295
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