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As mentioned earlier, just as the effect of mystical theology is to impart a more "spiritualized" view of the nature of sanctification, in time, it would also tend to lead to a more "spiritual" or subjective understanding of the church.
Indeed, as already seen, even Spener was well on the way to a re-introduction of the primitive church forms that would unavoidably undercut the foundations of institutional Lutheranism. His dual calls for the individual believers to divide the Scriptures, while not infringing on the prerogatives of the clergy were probably self-contradictory in practice. At least the clergy would make these calls mutually exclusive. Tappert says,
It is hardly surprising that the initial enthusiasm for the Pia Desideria cooled somewhat when the implications of one or another of these planks in Spener's platform became clearer. Clergymen felt threatened in their status by the rise of the laity, professors of theology resented the brash incursion of outsiders into their academic preserve, and the complacent were disturbed by appeals or change and for departure from what was familiar, customary, and comfortable.204
In spite of his determination to abide within the confines of his own confession, Spener tended to resist the structural strongholds of the status quo. When his critics pushed the idea that the collegiate clergy alone had the authority to interpret sufficiently in the symbols, Spener observed that, ". . .one pope would be better than many popes."205
Viewed this way, separatism, and the Radical Pietistic revolt were the logical outgrowth of Spener's theology--not confused distortions of it. Spener's own cries against separatism and anti-clericalism have a hollow ring when heard in the light of his call for a return to more radically biblical principles.
Spener, unlike many of his contemporaries, said the Symbolical Books206 are of human origin, and while God has provided so that they would not contain errors in basic doctrines which are necessary for salvation, He did permit errors in secondary matters to remind us of the distinction between the Symbolical Books and the Holy Scriptures. 207
These chippings at the foundations of the established orthodoxy proved to be a door which, once opened even a little, could not be closed again. The followers who took the Pietistic teachings to an extreme, both in soteriology and in ecclesiology tended to become very perfectionistic and hard to please. Some of them felt that separation from the world was the only to reach the ideal of inward perfection implied in some of the mystical thought used by Pietists. When separating one's self from the wicked world, what could be more wicked than the control hungry established denominations? Surely one must separate himself from man's church as well as from man's society.
An example par excellence of the kind of hyper-idealistic individualism that grew out of this "inward" view of Christianity can be seen in the ecclesiology of Gottfried Arnold.
Arnold had experienced a religious awakening while studying law at Wittemberg, apparently as a result of Spener's ministry.208 He was discipled by Spener for about two years while a tutor at Dresden. Later, Spener got him a posting to teach at Quedlinburg, which happened to be a hot-bed of separatism at that time.209 There he produced his first major work on early church history--Wahre Abbildung. As a result of this book, he was given the professorship of church history at Giessen in 1697. There he had extensive contact with Gichtel and Hochman (see below). Gichtel was a Boehmist, although this is not as clear in the case of Hochman.
Arnold's study of church history and the early church led him to feel that there was no church or sect in which a truly God-seeking person could retain his devotion to Christ without severe hindrances. Eventually, "Arnold comes to doubt that the requisite inwardness of the true church can ever be exhibited by a community again."210
Not surprisingly, he eventually came to depreciate the value of all forms of outwardness including the sacraments. He sees the Kingdom of God as preeminently inward.211 Arnold's super-spiritual critical view eventually leads him to render a negative verdict on every expression of the church that he considered in his other major work on church history, the Ketzerhistorie. 212
Stoffer says, "Arnold's trademark is clearly discernible: the necessity of looking to the early church as the norm for Christian life."213 The subjugation of ecclesiology to the doctrines of personal piety is denied by Stoffer. However, he admits that
. . .the renewal of the individual and the work of the Holy Spirit. . . are given added force in the Ketzerhistorie. . . .for the life of the regenerate man becomes the standard for judging all aspects of church history.214
Another renown Pietistic dissenter was Ernst Christoph Hochman. His Glaubensbekenntnis (published in 1743) is considered, "a reliable credenda of the Schwarzenau movement," which included the early German Baptist Brethren. 215 Hochaman tends to agree with many of Arnold's views in Ketzerhistorie.
Hochman was a traveling evangelist, more or less in the tradition of the mendicant (beggar) preachers of earlier times. He eventually settles for some time in the province of Wittgenstein. This province, under the rule of a Count Henry, needed more citizens for tax purpose. It therefore began welcoming religious dissenters and separatists of every stripe from as far away as Switzerland. These included Mennonites, Labadists, Lutheran Pietists, and Quakers. 216
That Hochman's influence on the German Brethren movement was a lasting one, is demonstrated by the fact that his Glaubensbekenntnis was brought to America by the Brethren, and was published by the Germantown press of Christopher Sauer in 1743.217
It is interesting to note that Hochman, like Spener may have been influenced by Labadie. We know he visited Labadist cells in Krefeld Holland, which also became the later home of some of the German Baptist Brethren. 218 Krefeld was at that time (between 1683 and 1720) a key rallying point for Separatists. Even before Hochman preached there, the inclination for `separation' had been planted. 219
The European Origins of the Brethren, by Donald F. Durnmaugh is the most complete collection of early German Baptist Brethren and radical pietistic documents available in translation. It contains many fascinating authentic letters and records of interrogations, etc. which portray the reactions and outlooks of the people involved in the clearest, and most reliable way.
A feel for the poignance of a life of free-form revolutionary agitation can be gained by reading an exchange of letters between a Palatine official at Mannheim and the Elector Palatine regarding the town's response to an incident where several adults had been baptized by Hochman and Mack.
When the official at Mannheim reported that several citizens had been baptized as adults, and asked for guidance, the Elector published an edict that read in part,
[those]...who profess this error and hold secret conventicles in homes or elsewhere, [shall be] carefully watched, especially the leaders. Those who commit this evil and who do not respond either to kingly or severe warnings to abandon these wicked intentions and maintain this especially stubbornly are to be arrested at once without special authorization. They are to be put in prison, and as many of them as there are must be locked to wheelbarrows and kept on public work on the fortifications or at other common labor. They are to be separated from one another in various places, and put on a bread-and-water diet. September 14, 1706.
In response to this the local official arrested a few Taufgesinnten [baptism factionaries] and reported the result,
On the basis of this, they were sentenced to public labor on the Neckar River in the hope that others of their ilk would be intimidated. However, it is impossible to describe what a great sympathy all of the Reformed subjects have shown for them. They have defended the Pietists' teachings, and said that nothing could be found deserving punishment in such pious Christians as far as they could see or hear. They have unashamedly proclaimed and made this their own cause. In addition, they immediately began going in processions to the prisoners outside of the city, not out of curiosity, but to spend all day listening to them. The prisoners preached continually instead of doing the assigned labor. They have also sent them plenty to eat and drink despite the published prohibition.
The civil guard appointed to watch them was powerless to prevent this, and was no longer sure of his own safety because of the open threats against him. I was finally forced to request a military guard and ordered him to go there. The latter gave the leader, the so-called Hochmann, a few harmless blows, because the latter would neither stop his continual preaching nor accommodate himself to working.
This caused such compassion, tumult, and exaggeration from the Reformed party as if these "innocent" people were being treated barbarously, so that an open rebellion was to be feared. This was even though I had released the two local citizens among the prisoners upon their declaration that they would again profess the Reformed faith. The Reformed party demonstrated such an unusual hatred for me because of this that one can obviously see that most of the Reformed have fallen prey to this Pietistic error and conspire with them."
"It is my humble opinion that a still harsher edict should be drawn up against this Pietistic sect and their defenders."
Instead, the elector answered,
. . .As the prisoners have obediently appealed again for merciful amelioration by the enclosed submissive petition, we have thereupon graciously resolved to dismiss the same at this time. They are to be expelled with the stern warning that they must never set foot in Mannheim or any other place in the territory. . .220
Life in a society where no churches were permitted other than the three already recognized was a constant adventure for separatist agitators like Hochman.
Hochman's views on baptism can be detected in the following response to Christian Liebe,
Hochmann von Hochenau to Christian Liebe
Concerning the matter of the baptism, it is my impartial opinion that baptism by fire and spirit must take place in every Christian. Where this does not occur in the soul, the outward water baptism alone without the inward one can make a Christian of no one. Before God in Christ, only the new creature has value. In faith working through love is found the entire essence of Christianity. Indeed, I believe that where one is outwardly baptized, even as an adult, that cannot possibly help one to salvation, if the person has not been inwardly sanctified in the body, soul, and spirit of Jesus.221
Likewise with communion,
When this is held by living members of Christ in truly united love, then I will not oppose it. To the contrary, in as far as they wish to ally themselves with me in life and death for the sake of the name of Jesus, I will take communion with them. However, without the inward alliance with the spirit of Jesus, the outward will avail little or nothing at all.222
Here we see in Hochman an example of complete inward focus, usually only found among quietists such as Quakers.
When the official tried to enlist the aid of the reformed pastor in an inquisitorial fashion, he found that the pastor was a moderate, uninterested in being a Taufjager [baptist hunter].
Inspector Konig to Count Charles August
If there is anything wrong with this type of baptismal act, it is that their baptism is commonly not a sacrament of unity and brotherly fellowship with all believers and God-fearing people but rather a sacrament of separation and partisan spirit.223
Of course in Hochman's view, no one could have been less partisan than he, since he did not recognized the validity of any confessional distinctions.
Alexander Mack wrote three tracts that we know of, but only two survive. Also one letter remains. The titles are a little hard to remember. One is,
A Short and Simple Presentation of the Outward, yet Sacred Rights and Ordinances of the House of God, as Commanded by the True Steward Jesus Christ, and Left on Record in His Last Will and Testament. Arranged in a Conversation between Father and Son through Questions and Answers. 224
For obvious reasons historians refer to this work as Rechte und Ordnungen, [Rites and Ordinances].
The other work that has survived has a similarly long title, but is usually called Ground Searching Questions [Grundforschende Fragen]. 225
The other main source matter comes from Alexander Mack Jr.'s Introduction to the 1774 edition of Rites and Ordinances which gives a short history of the formation of the movement using some verbal and written materials he got from his father and Elder Peter Becker, long time leader of the Germantown Brethren. 226
Mack traveled and preached with Hochman for at least two years. He considered himself Hochman's disciple until he decided to form a new church community that followed the New Testament pattern more faithfully. In a letter to a critic, he explains his view of the established churches:
The Baptist seed is still far better than the seed of L[uther], C[alvin], and also that of the C[atholics]. These have had a completely wild, yes, bestial outcome, which is self-evident. The Jews and the Turks are scandalized by the horrible wickedness of these three religions. Not even with gallows and torture can they keep them, who are of one faith, from murdering one another in their homes, which happens often enough. What is still more horrible, they go publicly to war, and slaughter one another by the thousands. All this is the fruit of infant baptism.227
Their story begins in one of the most popular refuges for separatists in Germany--Schwarzenau. Here Mack and his new wife came between 1700 and 1708. It was in 1708 that eight adults formed a Gemeinde, (parish or community) by having themselves baptized three times forward in the name of the Father the Son, and the Holy Spirit. 228 Hochman, who was opposed to all sects and all ecclesiastical organization, was disappointed in his followers for forming a new sect."229
Krefeld in northern Holland later became the center of the movement because of even greater religious toleration there. Earlier, in 1678, Stephen Crisp, and English Quaker, had established the first Quaker meeting at Krefeld. Two years later they were driven out of town, and in 1683 most of them went to America. As already seen, the Labadists had founded separatist cells there as well.230
Mack's group were "taufgesinnten" which means baptism sectaries, baptism variants, or baptism dissenters. The word is usually translated "baptists." They were also christened "Tunkers" [from tunkel- to dip] and "Dunkards." 231 Brethren historians refer to the movement as the German Baptist Brethren.
Mack Jr. explains that "Here and there private meetings (Versammlungen) were established next to the organized churches, in which newly awakened souls sought their edification. . .the [presence of] the spiritual priest [see above "Church Order"] embittered the hearts of the rulers, and . . .persecutions were started. . ." 232 They were persecuted because they baptized adults, causing the nobility to think that they were Wiedertaufern (Anabaptists). Civil authorities were terrified of Anabaptism, for, "it was essentially a lower class movement."
They eventually followed the Quakers to Penn's colony in America, where religious toleration was practiced. Three books popular with the early Brethren were: Johann Arndt, Wahres Christendom; Gottfried Arnold, Abbildung der ersten Christen; and Jeremais Feldbinger, Christliches Hand-Buchen. 233
Today the Brethren movement in America goes on under several denominational labels. These include the Ashland Brethren, the Brethren in America, and the Grace Brethren. 234
The final impact of Pietism is so far reaching in history that it is impossible to analyze fully here. The mere existence of the Wesleyan, Brethren and Moravian churches indicate terrific impact. Then there was the effect on the Lutheran church. This has been discussed in works by Stoeffler, Harnack, and Ritschl to name a few.235
Pietism is usually admitted to have influenced numerous other churches including the Mennonites, the Puritans, the Quakers, and Dutch Reformed in early America. We know that the New England Puritan Cotton Mather corresponded with Francke for instance.236
In society outside of the church, Pietism is credited with contributing to the impetus for a spirit of tolerance and religious freedom.237 Johann Wolfgang Goethe, and Immanuel Kant are examples of important secular thinkers who were heavily exposed to Pietism in their youth. Noll even [wrongly, I think] goes as far as seeing Pietistic influence in Jansenism and the visions of the Jewish mystic Baal Shem Tov!238
Some of the evaluations of Pietism's impact are quite negative.239 It is hard to deny that hyper-individualism is a danger inherent in the movement. Today, much of American fundamentalism draws its primarily inward devotional ethic from Pietistic sources. In a different vein, Noll, speaking from an apparently sentimental, rather than a biblical perspective, worries that Pietism "can underrate the value of Christian traditions."240 Others would say that this is the main value of the movement.
Regarding Ecclesiology, the great themes that Spener brought to light in the area of lay-ministry are arguably the most revolutionary and positive truths uncovered by the Reformation. The outburst of excitement for Christianity that resulted (even though temporary in many cases) was enough to impact most of the world before it had spent its force.
Heyd points out that we need to consider not only the moves made by the Pietists and related "inner life" groups, but also to study the reaction of the established churches.
The reactions of the establishment itself, or of `structure' to the challenges of the radicals has usually received less attention, although such a reaction may be no less interesting . . .than the thought and action of the radicals.241
He points out that "the `anti-structural' character of enthusiasm was stressed above all by its contemporary critics." As a result, It was, ". . .important to emphasize the time-bound character of scripture and to supplement it by a reliance on the Church as the embodiment of the religious order and as the only legitimate interpreter of the scriptural message."242 Thus, like the Quakers, the "latitude men" and the Anabaptists, the Pietists may have had the unintended effect in some confessions of stiffening institutional criteria for authority.
By far more significant however, are two central emphases reintroduced by the Pietists, that have remained as key elements of much of conservative Christianity especially in America. These are the emphasis on a personal relationship with God (usually attended by the belief in the need for a defined conversion experience) and the emphasis on evangelism and missions. Both of these have a bearing on ecclesiology.
The distinction between true (i.e. converted) Christians and nominal Christians relates to the definition of the true, or invisible, church. As already seen, this tendency led in part to the separatism of the radicals, and has led to various attempts at founding "believers only" churches.243 This development has tended to fade in importance because of the difficulties inherent in the view. However, the distinction has continued to carry weight with fundamentalist groups, many of which have set out to convert the nominal Christians in existing churches.
The emphasis on missions has had a resounding impact in redefining the nature of the church's mission. Views that the church is simply intended to worship rightly, and to season society have tended to be considered incomplete by Pietistically-oriented churches and parachurch groups. This has had the effect of birthing the modern missionary movement. The role of Halle in initiating this movement, (not to mention the work of the Methodists) should not be underrated.
Finally, there are several likely points of contact between secular intellectual history in Europe and Pietism, all of which lie outside the scope of this paper.
