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1 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, (Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, NY. 1961)p. 71 Although this book does, as its title suggests, focus on oral cultures' religions, it also contains extensive sections on other religions as well.
2 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p.71
3 Geoffrey Parrinder, Worship in the World's Religions, (Association Press, New York, NY. 1961)p. 18
4 Parrinder documents some of these errors, including the famous error made by Darwin in Teirra del Fuego in 1883. He asserted that the natives there were at a pre-religious state, and this was widely believed for decades, but later proved false. Geoffrey Parrinder, Worship in the World's Religions, p. 20
5 Parrinder, Geoffrey. Worship in the World's Religions, p. 19 Of course, the present author is a theologian. In addition, Parrinder himself does not shrink back from discerning patterns that run across all religions.
6 Norbeck, Edward. Religion in Primitive Society, p. 267,268
7 Carmody Denise L. and Carmody, John T., Ways To The Center Second Edition, (Wadsworth Publishing Co. Belmont CA. 1984) p.
8 Without, however, ignoring other areas entirely.
9 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 72 Norbeck also adds,"It is doubtful that any body of philosophical or ethical principles could survive unless it involved...unity among its members brought about by joint acts, in short, a church-like organization and ritual of some kind in which adherents participate." p.71
10 Douglas Davies, "Myths and Symbols", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, (Grand Rapids, MI.: William Eerdman Publishing Company, 1982,) p. 36.
11 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, "Whether himself a performer of the ritual or an onlooker, the individual may participate by seeing and hearing and through the vicarious experiences evoked." p. 73
12 Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism are examples of religious traditions that began with few or no external forms.
13 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 72 The paper is often placed on an altar and petitions are addressed in that direction. Of course, Islam has no problem with sacred space, or with sacred time.
14 John 4:21-24. All quotations from The New American Standard Bible, (Lockman Foundation, 1963) It is also noticeable from a historical point of view as Norbeck points out, "Early Christianity involved no objectification by means of paintings and statuary..." Yet this was changed radically before long. Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 72
15 Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", from Religion: An Anthropological View, (Random House, Inc. 1966) reprinted in Ways of Being Religious, Readings For a New Approach to Religion, Allen, Jay T., Lloyd, Charles L. Jr., Streng, Frederick J. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973). p. 157.
16 Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion. (The World Publishing Co.,Cleveland OH, 1958) p. 370
17 Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion. p.371 ff.
18 Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion. p. 368
19 Harold Turner, "Holy Places, Sacred Calendars", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, (Grand Rapids, MI.: William Eerdman Publishing Company, 1982,) p.20
20 Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion. p. 370
21 Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough, (New York, NY.: Macmillan Company, 1940) p. 56.
22 Alfred C. Haddon, Magic and Fetishism, (Constable & Company Ltd. Leicester Square, W.C. 1921) p. 92
23 Alfred C. Haddon, Magic and Fetishism, p. 77 He also says, "Animism sees all things animated by spirits; fetishism sees a spirit incorporated in an individual object." p. 77 "The material objects which form the tutelary deities or Boshun of the natives of the Gold Coast are not symbols of gods which usually reside elsewhere; each is the actual receptacle or ordinary abiding-place of an indwelling god." p. 78 He explains that these containers are prayed to, sacrificed to, and venerated like any other deity.
24 Eliade, Mircea. Patterns in Comparative Religion. p. 369
25 Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough, (New York, NY.: Macmillan Company, 1940) p. 56
26 Geoffrey Parrinder, Worship in the World's Religions, p. 27 We would have to side with Parrinder here against Frazer. The argument referred to runs thus, "But if in the most backward state of human society now known to us we find magic thus conspicuously present and religion conspicuously absent, may we not reasonably conjecture that the civilized races of the world have also at some period of their history passed through a similar intellectual phase, that they attempted to force the great powers of nature to do their pleasure before they thought of courting their favor by offerings and prayer--in short that, just as on the material side of human culture there has everywhere been an Age of Stone, so on the intellectual side there has everywhere been an Age of Magic?" Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough, (New York, NY.: Macmillan Company, 1940) p.55
This argument, cited here in full because it is typical of the attitude of many scholars, is based on conjecture and misinformation. There is never an absence of religion in "primitive" societies, nor is there an absence of magic in the so-called "civilized races of the world", as this paper hopefully shows.
27 Alfred C. Haddon, Magic and Fetishism, p. 79 This description fits most priestly mystical practices in well developed objectified religion. Haddon further states, "...the conception of the fetish as the vehicle of communication between spirit and worshiper raises fetishism to a higher plane in religious evolution..." p. 80 And again, "...(fetishism) includes conceptions which persist into higher forms of religion, such as the worship of the symbol of an unseen power." p. 92 Here we see an example of language that is somewhat outdated, although the content of the statement is true.
28 Harold Turner, "Holy Places, Sacred Calendars", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, (Grand Rapids, MI.: William Eerdman Publishing Company, 1982,) Turner is typical of many when he says, "Since divine power is more accessible at sanctuaries, these become places of pilgrimage." Here is the "vehicle" notion to be sure. However, he then feels it necessary to add, "The synagogues, churches and mosques of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, however, should be seen as meeting-places for the worshipers, not as sacred dwelling-places for God." p.20 This distinction seems unwarranted. Why is it necessary to remove one's shoes before entering a mosque? Why are children not permitted to run in the "sanctuary"? Why may we smoke in the parking lot, but not in the sanctuary? What does the term Sanctuary mean?
Carmody and Carmody have a more accurate view when they say, "A mosque, a synagogue, and a church all show likenesses of a Hindu or a Buddhist temple. All five enclose sacred space." Denise L. Carmody and John T. Carmody, Ways To The Center Second Edition, p. 352
29 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 82
30 This is the interpretation favored by Wallis for many objectified aspects of religion. For instance "...the simple ritual act of crossing oneself, in Catholic custom, by touching the fingers to the forehead and chest in four, must be understood as a statement of intent to secure divine power as a protection against danger, spiritual or physical. The "sign of the cross", the extremities of which are indicated by the points touched, invokes the whole story of Christ and its complex meanings; the accompanying litany--"In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Amen"--...constitutes both a prayer and a primitive magical conception of power inherent in naming; Thus, this simple act may be a statement ...of beliefs based both on ancient Christian mythology and even more ancient conceptions of magic." Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, p. 156
31 Haddon, Alfred C. Magic and Fetishism, p.9432 Geoffrey Parrinder, Worship in the World's Religions, p. 28. He acknowledges that there are some temples among non-literate peoples, but points out that they are small, and often not built of lasting material.
34 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 56
35 Robert Brow, "Origins of Religion", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, (Grand Rapids, MI.: William Eerdman Publishing Company, 1982,) p. 31 For a good defense of this theory on the popular level, see Don Richardson, Eternity in Their Hearts, (Ventura CA: Regal Books, 1981)
36 Robert Brow, "Origins of Religion", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, "The essence of priestcraft is the rise of a group of people who claim to control access to God, and who suggest that the offering of sacrifice is a meritorious act which forces God to grant favors". p. 38 Brow cites the case of India, "The Brahmins were suggesting that by the right sacrifices, which they could alone offer, they could procure the favors of the gods, various temporal blessings, and a good place in heaven. Gods, men, governments, all were under priestly control." p. 38
37 Robert Brow, "Origins of Religion", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, (Grand Rapids, MI.: William Eerdman Publishing Company, 1982,) "This shows how easily priestcraft degenerates into magic. Once sacrifice becomes a meritorious act which forces God to give blessings, it can be used to obtain benefits for oneself and harm for one's enemies. Obviously we are now only one stage removed from the medicine man..." p. 38
38 Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, Amulets and Talismans, (University Books, 1961, New Hyde Park, NY) p. xvi.
39 Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, Amulets and Talismans, "...from early Christian times the Cross has been regarded as the amulet and talisman par excellence throughout Ethiopia."p.xxii,
and again,"...civilized priests of Egypt, Sumer and Babylonia... did not reject the crude magical beliefs and practices of their predecessors...on the contrary they adopted many of them unaltered, and they formed an integral part of the mystery of the religion which they formulated. Henceforth magic and religion went hand in hand. The gods became magicians, and employed magic when necessary, and dispensed it through their priests to mankind." p.xvi
and finally, "...in Babylonia, Assyria and Egypt amulets were designed and made by workmen attached to the great temples, and the inscriptions on them were drafted by the priests and engraved by employees in the temples." p.xxiv
40 Sir E.A. Wallis Budge, Amulets and Talismans, "Shortly after the close of the IVth century of our Era, a sort of revival in the use of amulets began and the Christians began to make use of amulets...by the clergy and laity alike to drive away devils and disease-producing spirits. (the cross)...Then came pictures of the Virgin Mary, and pictures and figures of the Archangels and the great saints, and the cult of the relics of the martyrs... Untanned leather and parchment and papyrus and stones were also inscribed with extracts from the Scriptures, and finally, after the invention of paper, Amulets and Talismans of paper became common. And a species of Christian Magic came into being. The greatest name and word of power was Jesus, and the Host and sacramental oil and incense became, to many, amulets of invincible power, and the Sacred Elements were actually called "immortal medicine"." p. xxviii
41 Robert Brow, "Origins of Religion", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, p. 38 and p.
42 His chronology is open to debate in my view, although the major point is correct.
42 Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, Wallis also applies these steps to "secular" ritual.
43 Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, p. 158
44 Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, p. 158.Emphasis mine.
45 Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, p. 159
46 Wallis affirms that "The ritual process, as described above, is a universal human phenomenon..." and, "One- but only one- way of institutionalizing the ritual process is to interpret and apply it within the context of a belief in supernatural beings." Anthony F. C. Wallis, "Rituals: Sacred and Profane--An Anthropological Approach", in Ways of Being Religious Readings For a New Approach to Religion, p. 160
47 Paul did so frequently, but most clearly in I Cor. 3:16 (note plural "humas"), Christ did so in John 2:19-21, Peter in I Pet.2:5.
48 Heb. 8:13; 13:10-14; Acts 7:48-50 etc.
49 Col.2:16-17 directly declares the idea of a sacred calendar to be obsolete. Gal. 4:9,10 says that a sacred calendar is among the "weak and worthless elemental things." Even though Paul allows "weaker brethren" to observe "one day greater than another", it is clear that he views this outlook as unnecessary. (Rom. 14)
50 Hebrews chapters 5 through 8 decisively limits the intercession of the high Priestly role to Christ, as does I Tim. 2:5. At the same time, Peter refers to all believers as "a nation of priests" in I Pet. 2:5, because we are able to intercede for others.
51 It could be argued that the anointing with oil mentioned in James 5:14 and the laying on of hands practiced in Acts were elements of objectification also (Acts 13:3; I Tim. 4:14; II Tim. 1:6; I Tim. 5:22). However, I think these were cultural features that were not directly related to the worship of God-- that is, they deal with ways believers relate to each other rather than to God.
52 K. A. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and The Old Testament. (Chicago, ILL. 1966) pp.91 ff.
53 See notes 48 and 49 above, as well as Heb.7:18.54 Victor Warnac, "Symbols as Vehicles of the Sacred", in Ways of Being Religious- Readings For a New Approach to Religion, Allen, Jay T., Lloyd, Charles L. Jr., Streng, Frederick J. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973). p.150 The word "preeminently" seems too strong here.
55 Robert Brow, "Origins of Religion", in Eerdman's Handbook to World Religions, p. 37 Zech.1, Amos 5:21-24 and Isaiah 29:13,14 are examples of the kinds of passages Brow is referring to.
56 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 74
57 Luke 5:36-39
58 See I Thess. 5:27, Phil. 1:1, and parallels.
59 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 56
60 Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 65
61 Objectified religion is often just as mechanistic as I am suggesting, as can be seen from the following observation, "Many of the important reforms of Nicon, for example, are small matters of ritual performance, of which perhaps the most important in arousing contention was the question of the number of fingers to be used in making the sign of the cross." Edward Norbeck, Religion in Primitive Society, p. 74.
62 We cannot, in my view, rule out the idea that the possession phenomena mentioned by Wallis could involve real spiritual contact of some sort.
63 Rev. 21:22
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