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| Critical
Reasoning with Jim Leffel |
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Week Four: Constructive Uses of Critical Reasoning Skills
Inductive logic
What is "inductive" logic? If the premises are presumed true, the conclusion probably follows
Flu vaccines have an 80% rate of effectiveness
George got a flu vaccine
George will not get the flu
Strength/Weakness
Cogent/Uncogent
Uses of inductive logic:
Scientific explanations
Design analogy
Design hypothesis and probability
Historical explanations
Application: the resurrection of Christ
Hypotheses: Jesus died, was buried and resurrected on the third day
Evidence:
Jesus died
Account of Jesus’ death consistent with known Roman procedure
Few question that Jesus lived and died
Roman historians attest to the historical Jesus: Tacitus and Josephus
Empty tomb (Mark 16)
Burial account is consistent with known Jewish tradition
Women’s testimony to the empty tomb shows early Christians were more interested in historical fact than compelling arguments
Impossible to teach the resurrection without the empty tomb
Early Jewish polemic against the resurrection claim presumes an empty tomb (Matthew 28:15)
Alternative hypothesis: Conspiracy theory
Psychologically improbable that the body was stolen, because the disciples did not anticipate this event prior to its occurrence.
Historically/theologically unlikely that the body was stolen, since Jews did not anticipate a killed and resurrected messiah
"Ancient Judaism did not know of an anticipated resurrection as an event of history. Nowhere does one find in the literature anything comparable to the resurrection of Jesus. In no place in the late Judaic literature does it concern a resurrection as an event of history." Joachim Jeremias
Resurrection appearances of Jesus
Appearance to women indicates historicity
Appearance to disciples unexpected and not initially believed
Appearance to Paul certainly not expected
Presence of 500 witnesses (I Corinthians 15:6)
Alternative hypothesis: legend theory
Resurrection was the central and earliest Christian belief
Insufficient time existed to transform Jesus story into resurrection legend
Gospels and other New Testament documents are factual in nature and consistent with the claim to have been written by eye witnesses within 30+ years of the event
Resurrection knows no parallels to Jewish or pagan religion
Disciples testimony of the resurrection
Willingness to die for their testimony lends substantial authenticity
Something extraordinary must explain the origin of the early church
Alternative hypothesis: hallucination theory
Disciples lacked the psychological willingness to believe the resurrection
Witnesses were too diverse and numerous to make hallucination plausible
Conclusion: the weight of evidence supports resurrection hypothesis
Deductive logic
What is "deductive logic"? If the premises are presumed true, the conclusion must follow
Bruno is a dog
All dogs slobber
Bruno slobbers
Validity/Invalidity
Sound/Unsound
Samples of deductive argument forms (Moreland, 115):
Modus Ponens: Modus Tollens: Disjunction: Hypothetical Syllogism: If P then Q If P then Q Either P or Q If A then B P not Q not P If B then C Therefore Q Therefore not P Therefore Q If A then C
Example of deductive logic: C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity
If morality has meaning, then it is objective
If morality is objective, then God must exist
If morality has meaning, then God must exist
Morality has meaning
God exists
Logic and biblical interpretation
Biblical authors frequently appeal to evidence and argument in contrast to other sacred texts that merely make assertions
Example: 1 Corinthians 15:12-19:
12. "Now if Christ is preached, that He has been raised from the dead, how do some among you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? 13. But if there is no resurrection of the dead, not even Christ has been raised; 14. and if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain. 15. Moreover we are even found to be false witnesses of god, because we witnessed against God that He raised Christ, whom He did not raise, if in fact the dead are not raised. 16. For if the dead are not raised, not even Christ has been raised; 17. And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is worthless; you are still in your sins. 18. Then those also who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished. 19. If we have hoped in Christ in this life only, we are of all men most to be pitied."
Structure of the argument:
Either a resurrection from the dead or no resurrection from the dead (12)
If no resurrection, then Christ did not resurrect
If Christ did not raise, then
Faith in him is vain (14)
Apostles gave false witness (15, cf. 1-11)
You are still in your sin (17)
No hope beyond the grave (18)
Christians are pathetic (19)
Unstated premise: Christ did resurrect (see 15:1-11)
Conclusion: there is a resurrection of Christian believers
Identifying logical structure in interpretation
Why it’s important to understand the thought development and logical flow of a passage
A note on "inductive" study
Importance of background context of author and audience—why is the text being written; what do we know about author and audience (and others)?
Importance of knowing general history
Careful examination of each paragraph:
Theological significance of terms and concepts
How the paragraph fits into the wider purposes of the text
What is the original reader to do with the information?
What do I do with the information?
Identifying structure: A first step in paragraph analysis—the skeleton
Claim (conclusion, thesis) of the passage:
Check out key "connective" words: Thus, therefore, so, consequently…
Imperatives usually follow from indicatives
Warrant (reason given in support of the claim)
Check out key "connective" words: For, because, moreover, and…
Indicatives are usually given as warrant for imperatives
Example: Romans 13:1,2:
Let every person be in subject in to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from god, and those which exist are established by God. Therefore he who resists authority has opposed the ordinance of God…"
Example: Romans 13:8-10:
Owe nothing to anyone except to love one another; for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. For this, ‘You shall not commit adultery, you shall not murder, you shall not steal, you shall not covet,’ and if there is any other commandment, it is summed up in this saying, ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ Love does no wrong to a neighbor; love therefore is the fulfillment of the law.
Example: 2 Timothy 1:3-7:
I thank God, whom I serve with a clear conscience the way my forefathers did, as I constantly remember you in my prayers night and day, longing to see you, even as I recall your tears, so that I may be filled with joy. For I am mindful of the sincere faith within you, which first dwelt in your grandmother Lois, and your mother Eunice, and I am sure that it is in you as well. For this reason, I remind you to kindle afresh the gift of God which is in you through the laying on of my hands. For God has not given us a spirit of timidity, but of power and love and discipline.
