Paganism in the Old Testament

It is perhaps under appreciated that portions of the OT are intended to be polemics against pagan mythology. Allusions to Caananite creation myths are incorporated into many passages arguing for God's supremacy. Rahab, The Proud One, Leviathan, The Twisting One, Yam and The Sea are all titles of someone or something with which Yaweh does battle.^[1]   5 of these 12 or so passages connect this battle with creation itself.

He quieted the sea (Yam) with his power and by his understanding he shattered Rahab. By his breath the heavens are cleared; his hand pierced the fleeing serpent. - Job 26:12-13

You divided the sea (Yam) by your strength; you broke the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters. You crushed the heads of Leviathan; You gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness. You broke open springs and torrents; you dried up ever-flowing streams. Yours is the day, yours is the night; you have prepared the light and the sun. You have established all the boundaries of the earth; you have made summer and winter. - Ps.74:13ff

Comparisons between battle myths from the ancient Near East^[2]  and biblical narratives suggest to some scholars^[3]  that Hebrew accounts of Yaweh-monster battles are anti-pagan polemics rather than evidence that Hebrew theology is borrowed from surrounding nations.

Three features are typical of Near Eastern battle myths according to Wakeman: 1. A repressive monster^[4]   prevents creation; 2. The monster is defeated by a god^[5]  who thereby looses certain life forces^[6]  and 3. The victorious god masters the life forces to create^[7]  and is elevated to king of the gods status.

Waltke argues that the Torah use of Canaanite mythology did not affirm that the Semites believed such a creature existed. He says they used the myths to argue the superiority of Yaweh: *

• These were strict monotheists (Job 31:26-28; Isa. 51:9; 44:6; 45:6-7) and as such would not have affirmed the existence of other gods. *
• Pagan references do appear in the Torah but in poetic passages where imagery is important for vivid illustration; it's not pagan theology that's borrowed, it's pagan imagery. *
• Strict monotheists would not have attempted to support their monotheistic view from pagan mythology, rather they used the mythological imagery to argue that Yahweh is the creator; that Yahweh defeated Pharaoh (Rahab was a nickname for Pharaoh at the time of the exodus and remember, God dried up the restraining sea Isa.51:9f; Ps.87:4) and the prophets used the imagery to convey Yahweh's contemporary and future defeat of his enemies culminating with the defeat of Satan Isa.27:1; Rev. 12:7-9

Thus, in every case where these references are used it is to affirm the triumph of Yahweh over his foes, the establishment of his rule on earth and his superiority over the pagan gods.

^Notes:

^[1]  Waltke argues from Wakeman & Allen that Rahab (a.k.a. Leviathan) is an anti-creation dragon monster because the biblical text descriptions of this entity correlates with the monsters of neighboring pagan mythology (c.f. Job 3:8; Ps.89:9f) Return to Text

^[2]  Sumer, India, Anatolia, Meopotamia, Greece and Canaan. Return to Text

^[3]  Mary Wakeman (1973) God's Battle with Monster: A study in biblical imagery; Ronald B. Allen (1968) The Leviathan-Rahab-Dragon Motif in the Old Testament; Cyrus Gordon (1966) Leviathan: Symbol of Evil, In: Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations ed. A. Altmann Return to Text

^[4]  A serpent or other indescribable creature that encompasses the potential existence of all things; In other accounts it is a demonic agent that perpetuates a state of inertia. Return to Text

^[5]  Typically this god is born of the restraining monster Return to Text

^[6]  This is often, though not always accomplished through violent confrontation and the life forces are conceived as fluids that flow from the wounded monster. Return to Text

^[7]  Either body parts, body fluids or body energies are used to fashion a cosmos. Return to Text

^[8]  Op. Cit. Gordon; compare Ps.74:13f with Ugaritic text 67:1:1-3; Lotan = Leviathan; the myth is even older, having been dated to the 24th century BC during the Akkad Dynasty. Return to Text