Ancient Scriptures & Commentaries

Masoretic Text (abbreviated MT) *

The Masoretes (lit. transmitters of tradition) were Jewish scholars (c. 500-1000 AD) responsible for preserving the text of the Hebrew Bible and creating a system of vowel signs to provide a pronunciation guide for the consonantal text of Hebrew scripture *

They relied on older received manuscripts. *

The Masoretic text is the product of that effort.

Megilloth *

Megilla - scroll; from galal - to roll up *

The five megilloth are: Ruth, Canticles (Song of Solomon), Ecclesiastes, Lamentations and Esther.

Midrash *

Heb. - midras, "to seek, examine, investigate" *

Refers both to a method of exposition and application of the Torah as well as a collection of these expositions and applications. *

Ezra practiced this style b/c of his efforts to study and apply the Torah *

Haggadah midras - interpreted non-legal materials in an ethical and expository style; a distillation of principles from the Torah. *

Halakah midras - applied the general principles of OT laws to specific situations; an application of the Torah in a kind of 'case law' format. *

Midrash material was preserved orally for a long time *

AD 100's the halakic midrashim were written down *

Mekilta - treatise to Exodus *

Sifra - treatise to Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy *

AD 200's the haggadic midrashim were written down *

Treatise on Genesis followed later by Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy as well as the Megilloth *

These were known as the Midrash Rabbah

Mishnah *

From Hebrew shana, "to repeat" *

Refers both to a teaching technique emphasizing memory work through continuous repetition and a commentary on the Torah that contained few direct references to the Torah. *

Developed by the scribal school of the Hasidim *

Midrash study was not supplanted by the Mishnah approach...both were used for halakic and haggadic areas *

The Mishnah is a sort of collection of the works of Sopherim, Hasidim, Zugot and Tannaim periods assembled and written down by Judah HaNasi c. AD 200. *

Judah HaNasi did not compile all the Mishnah or Midrash material into the document called the Mishnah *

Subsequent scholars pulled together the unpublished Mishnah and Midrash material with their own commentaries in a document called the Gemara (Aramaic gemara meaning "completion") which serves as a commentary on the Judah HaNasi Mishnah *

The Gemara and Mishnah is together called the Targum or Talmud

Scribes *

sopherim - scribal tradition running from Ezra (c.450 BC to 180 BC) which produced the Midrashim *

hasidim - scribal tradition running through the Maccabean age which produced the Mishnah *

through the period of the hasidim, there were 5 pairs of leaders known as the Zugot who developed instructional methods w/o direct reference to the Law

Septuagint (abbreviated LXX meaning 'of the seventy') *

The name derives from the apocryphal story found in a 2nd century BC letter, Letter of Aristeas, who claimed it was the work of 72 scholars, 6 from each tribe of Israel. *

A Greek translation of the Torah prepared 3 centuries before the birth of Christ

Talmud *

From lamad, "to study," "to learn" *

An interpretation of the Law and a collection of wise sayings; *

Developed in Alexandria after Babylon and Jerusalem were no longer Jewish intellectual centers; comprised of the Jerusalem and Babylonian Targum with additional commentaries *

Talmud is sometimes used interchangeably with Targum *

Circa 450 BC to AD 500 *

See the notes on Mishnah, Midrash and Targum

Targum *

from targumim, interpretations *

Interpretations or paraphrases of the Pentateuch *

The Gemara and Mishnah is together called the Targum or Talmud *

There are two versions of the Targum: the Jerusalem (aka Jonathan, AD 425) and the Babylonian (AD 500); the latter is 3x as long

Literary Structure

Often OT prophets delivered their message in verse. This made the message more interesting and easier to remember. Below are some terms used to describe attributes of these styles:

Acrostic Poetry

The first letter of each new line forms a recognizable pattern (e.g. Ps.119, each new line begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet; see also Ps.9/10,25,34,37,111,112,145).

Alliteration

Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of two or more words in a series (e.g. "Fields ever fresh and groves ever green"). Obviously, this style is only present in the language in which the text was initially written. Once translated, the impact of alliteration is lost. Ps.22:4 beka batehu... batehu ('in you...put their trust; they trusted)

Allegory

An allegory is a sort of extended metaphor where two different things are being compared for their similarities in an effort to clarify something about the object of the allegory. In an allegory, each element of an account represents a feature of the object of the allegory. "Thus says the Lord my God, 'Pasture the flock doomed to slaughter. Those who buy them slay them and go unpunished, and each of those who sell them says, 'Blessed be the Lord, for I have become rich.' And their own shepherds have no pity on them'" is an allegory from Zechariah.11:4. The objects of this allegory are those who participate in the destruction of Israel...that they treat Israel like a sheep herd and each element of the allegory directly applies to these people.

Antiphony

An antiphonal psalm is a responsive psalm. The cantor recites a line and the group responds (e.g. the great Hallel, Psalm 136)

Aphorism

A short pithy sentence (e.g. he's as good as dead). In Isaiah 7:8, "The head of Aram is Damascus, and the head of Damascus is only Rezin."

Apostrophe

An address directed toward a personification (e.g. Ps.68:15-16).

Assonance

A partial rhyme in which the stressed vowel sounds are alike but the consonant sounds are not (e.g. bike and light). In Micah 7:4 the word hedge, mesuka, and the word confusion, mebuka are assonant words used to change perspective from description to prediction. Isaiah describes the day of the Lord as a day of tumult, mehuma, trampling, mebusa and terror, mebuka (22:5) using assonance & alliteration to make the prophecy tense and memorable to his listeners. According to VanGemeren,^[1]  Psalm 44:7 displays assonance. Although he focuses upon the consonant sounds, sh, ts or s, which occur in every word: hosatanu missarenu umesanenu hebisota.

Chiasm (a.k.a. chiasmus)

An inversion of the second of two parallel phrases (e.g. do not live to eat but eat to live). Isaiah 1:19-20, "you will eat the best...but if you resist, you will be devoured," carries the chaismus, 'eat or be eaten.' Psalm 51:1a, 'have mercy...according to your love' forms a chiasm with 51:1b, 'according to your compassion...blot out transgressions'. Psalm 6:9a, 'heard...my cry for mercy' forms a chiasm with 6:9b, 'my prayer...accepts'.

Ellipsis

This involves incomplete parallelism. The second phase in a parallel line silently includes a clause from the previous line (e.g. Ps.88:6). Psalm 12:3, 'may the Lord cut off' belongs with both clauses but is only associated with the first clause.

Hendiadys

A figure of speech wherein two sequential expressions make the same point (Ps.107:10 - darkness {hosek} and deepest gloom {salmawet} intensify the experience of anguish) OR (Ps.27:1 'the Lord is my light {'or} and my salvation {yesa} intensify the joy of God's loving actions).

Hyperbole

An exaggeration meant to emphasize a point rather than to be taken literally (e.g. The whole world is in an uproar over this teaching. This is as old as time) (e.g. Ps.40:12). Some people take "the lion shall lie down with the lamb ..." prophecy in Isaiah 11:3-16 to be an hyperbole intended to emphasize the peace and safety of the millennial kingdom. Others take it literally.

Imagery

The use of simile, metaphor mythic allusions or other literary devices that conjure up mental images as they are read and pondered. Parallelism and imagery are standard features of Hebrew poetry. Meter and rhyme, while important in Western poetry, are not characteristic of Hebrew poetry

Inclusion (a.k.a. inclusio)

The opening and closing of a passage is the same or similar. Inclusio serves as bookends to the entire passage between. It sets the mood for the passage and brings it to a close (e.g. Ps. 8:1 & 9; Hallelu Yah, Praise Yaweh begins and ends Ps.106).^[2]  

Merismus

A use of words that are meant to represent the whole population (e.g. Ps.105:14 adam (man) and melakim (kings) are used to mean anyone/everyone). Ps. 121:2 'heaven & earth' are meant to represent every created thing.

Metaphor

When unlike things are compared with each other to clarify the meaning of one of those things. A metaphor is an extended simile without the clue "like" or "as."

"A mighty fortress is our God," is a metaphor intended to communicate the protection available to all that put their trust in God.

"I am the door," is a metaphor intended to show that Christ is the access point to God and to eternal life.

"Its teeth are the teeth of a lion and it has the fangs of a lioness," is a metaphor in Joel 1:6 intended to show the ferocity of Judah's judgment.

A metonymy is a simile or metaphor intended to represent something (e.g. Ps.7:10 shield; Ps.22:15-16 potsherd, dogs).

Meter

Rhythmical writing that structures a poem. Hebrew poetry is not metrical. English readers are apt to think that poetry must be metrical in order to be poetry because much English poetry is that way. This definition is included here because some older scholars tried to find metrical patterns in the Psalms.

Onomatopoeia

The formation of a word from the sound the object makes (e.g. barking of a dog; hissing of a snake; roaring of an engine). In 17:12, "...the uproar of the peoples - they roar like the roaring of great waters," the 'm' and 'n' sounds in hamon (uproar) and seon (roaring) sound like waves when read aloud in Hebrew. In 42:14, "like a woman in childbirth, I cry out (pa 'ah), I gasp (nawsham) and pant (sha' af)," are grunting, guttural words reminiscent of sounds made by a woman during childbirth.

Parable

A parable is a fictional short story intended to communicate some truth. Formal names are not part of parabolic writing; parables are short and followed by an explanation (e.g. In 2 Sam.12:1ff Nathan tells David a parable about an unjust rich man exploiting a poor man. David does not know it is a parable until Nathan reveals that it is a parable about David's treatment of Uriah).

Parallelism

A standard literary device used in Hebrew poetry and prose, although it is more frequently used in poetry. It involves the repetition and extension of the ideas in one line by subsequent line(s). *

Semantic parallelism involves the repetition and extension of the ideas in one line by the next line. The categories of this kind of parallelism include: synonymous parallelism; antithetic parallelism; synthetic parallelism; emblematic parallelism; repetitive parallelism; pivot pattern and chiasm.^[3]  *

Grammatical parallelism involves the repetition of the parts of speech from one line to the next, although not necessarily in the same order (e.g. He rebukes them in his anger {verb-direct object-prepositional phrase} and in his wrath he terrifies them {prepositional phrase-verb-direct object}. This serves to tie one line with another.

Parallelism and imagery are standard features of Hebrew poetry. Meter and rhyme, while important in Western poetry, are not characteristic of Hebrew poetry

Personification

The presentation of an idea or value through its expression as a person (e.g. 'the wine he dries up, the field he mourns' Joel 1:10)

Recapitulation

A short summary of points previously made. "Awake drunkards and weep; and wail, all you wine drinkers, on account of the sweet wine that is cut off from your mouth," from Joel 1:5 is a recapitulation intended to emphasize the nature of the audience.

Simile

When two unlike things are compared (e.g. she is like a summer day). The terms, 'like' or 'as' are often used in such sentences. "Their appearance is like the appearance of horses," is a simile from Joel 2:4 intended to communicate the swiftness of Israel's destruction.

Strophe

A stanza that is answered by another stanza - twist on the first.

Wordplay

This is a clever exchange of words, a malapropism^[4]  or a pun. In Isaiah 13:6, "...it will come like destruction from the Almighty," both words derive from the same root sod. The blow will be such that only God could have delivered it. Micah has an entire series of puns in his prophecy about the destruction of several cities of Judah (see Micah 1:8-15). Paronomasia is a form of wordplay where homonyms with different nuances (Ps.44:15-17 kol (all), qol (sound or taunts) and kol (all). Antanaclasis is a paronomasia where the words have contrasting meanings (e.t. Ps.69:30-31 a song {sir} is better than a bull {sor})

Schools of prophetic Interpretation

Allegorical Interpretation

Some schools of thought have attempted to assign an allegorical meaning to prophetic passages. This makes interpretation of prophetic passages so subjective and idiosyncratic as to render them meaningless. Sometimes the motivation for this approach is the presupposition that supernatural events (e.g. like predictive prophecy or miracles) cannot take place.

Application Approaches

In this case a prophecy from an earlier time is used for its applicability to a contemporary situation. However, the person making the application is not trying to suggest that the reference should be interpreted to refer to the contemporary situation (e.g. don't muzzle the ox used by Paul to argue for the fiscal support of elders but he is not trying to say that this law was written for the purpose of elder fiscal support.).

Literal Interpretation

This school of thought holds that supernatural events can take place and thus the plain meaning of a passage is preferred. This approach should not be confused with a literalistic method of interpretation. A literalistic approach would require the reader to believe that Christ was an actual door when he said, I am the door. This method of interpretation does recognize that predictive prophecies can be quite challenging to interpret and thus acknowledges prophecy may have one of several different forms.

Prophetic forms

Isaiah is cited many times in the New Testament and in several of those cases the Isaiah passage is said to be fulfilled by some event in the life of Christ. If we understand fulfillment in a narrow manner, that is, a prediction is made and it comes to pass, then it will be difficult to reconcile these passages because they clearly have meaning for Isaiah's times. It is helpful to recognize that the term translated 'fulfill' has a broader meaning than this. The term 'fulfill' carries the denotation, 'filled to the full' or 'complete.' Thus, it could be said that an event fulfills an earlier statement because the theology of that is consonant with that of the new event. Similarly, if an event finishes off or consummates an earlier event then it could be said to be the fulfillment. For instance, Christ fulfills the Law because his sacrifice is in accordance with the conditions of the Law and because his sacrifice replaces it.

Developmental or Gap Prophecies

Some prophecies seem partially fulfilled in the near term but only completely fulfilled later, perhaps in our future. These are referred to as prophetic gaps. Daniel's 70 weeks prophecies are thought to include a gap between the 69th 7 year period and the 70th 7 year period that extends into our own time.

Double-reference Prophecies

According to some scholars there are some prophecies that have meaning in the context of the prophet but seem also to address events quite removed from the times of the prophet. The first event/person to which the prophecy refers is known as the type. The second event/person is the antitype. An opposing school of thought holds that only one interpretation can be assigned to a prophecy (Single-meaning).

Type Prophecies

People, events or objects that had a clear meaning in their time but which served to foreshadow people, events or objects in the future (e.g. the OT law and religious practices foreshadowed Christ; Abraham and Isaac foreshadowed God offering Christ as a sacrifice). Much of the book of Hebrews is devoted to expounding the type nature of the OT sacrificial system.

^Notes:

^[1]  In Psalms from the Expositors Bible Commentary. Return to Text

^[2]  These examples are from Longman, p.107 Return to Text

^[3]  See Longman's chapter on parallelism or my synopsis of it in the introductory material. Return to Text

^[4]  A deliberate misuse of words, particularly words that sound like the words substituted (e.g. He is a legend in his own mind (substitution of mind for the correct word - time)). Return to Text